As a general of Shu Han, Guan Yu may not be the most dazzling in the Three Kingdoms era, where heroes emerged and stars were brilliant, but after his death, he was constantly interpreted and deified by people, from humans to holy, from saints to gods, becoming a god worshipped by the gods from emperors, generals and ministers to ordinary people, black and white disciples, and people of the three religions and ninth ranks.
In the Central Plains, Guan Gong, as a typical representative of the culture of loyalty and righteousness, was highly respected and commended by rulers of all dynasties and was granted titles continuously. Buddhism also created the legend of Guan Gong’s death and manifested the sage of Yuquan Mountain in Jingzhou after his death. He was guided by Master Zhizhe of Tiantai Sect and converted to Buddhism, making Guan Gong the legend of Kalan Bodhisattva, one of the two major Buddhist guardians. Taoism followed closely behind, and woven Guan Gong as invited by Zhang Tianshi to subdue the Chiyou God who harmed the Yanchi Lake in Jiezhou, Hedong, and became the myth of the guardian god of the Yanchi Lake. Guan Gong was portrayed as the “Three Realms of Demon-Subduing Emperor”. Driven by various social forces, especially with the help of popular literature and art media such as Guan Gong Opera and “Romance of the Three Kingdoms”, Guan Gong’s image of loyalty, righteousness and bravery has become more deeply rooted in the hearts of the people. Guan Gong is not only the object of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, but also the god of war believed in by the army, the god of wealth devoted by merchants, and the protector of industry worshipped by practitioners who make a living by slaughtering, haircuts, wooden making, knife and scissor shops.
The statue of Guan Gong in the Guandi Temple in Jiezhou.
The statue of Guandi in Guanlin, Luoyang.
Among all these divine bodies, the God of War and the God of Wealth are the most well-known. Because Guan Gong fought bravely during his lifetime, at the latest in the Middle Tang Dynasty, Guan Gong was already regarded by the people as a god of war to protect the place in Jingzhou when he died. During the Song and Yuan dynasties, it became even more popular for the army to visit Guan Gong Temple before the battle, and praying for Guan Gong to appear and help the battle. However, at the national sacrificial level, Guan Gong’s status as the God of War was established relatively late. In the Wucheng King Temple, which existed briefly during the reign of Emperor Dezong of Tang, Guan Gong was one of the 64 famous generals of all dynasties and worshipped King Jiang Ziya, but he was only ranked 15th on the left. Since then, from the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Northern Song Dynasty to the early Ming Dynasty, Guan Gong was only a famous general in the temple of King Wucheng. Twenty years to Hongwu (Komiks 1960 witch cloth draw1387), Zhu Yuanzhang abolished the Wucheng King Temple system that had been along for hundreds of years, resulting in a vacuum of war god sacrifices at the national level. However, driven by the army’s tradition of advocating the god of war, the Ming Dynasty had to establish a god of war, so Guan Gong, the god of war that had been widely circulated among the people for a long time, stood out. In the 27th year of Hongwu (1394), the Ming Dynasty built the Guanyu Temple in Jiming Mountain, Nanjing and included it in the national sacrificial ceremony. At this point, Guan Yu officially replaced Jiang Ziya and became the national god of war, and continued to expand his social influence under the promotion of various official and civil forces.
As the God of Wealth, Guan Gong may have a great relationship with the activity of Shanxi merchants in the Ming and Qing dynasties. In order to encourage merchants to transport grain to the border, the Ming Dynasty implemented a Chinese-French system that exchanged grain for salt and gave merchants the qualification to sell salt. Because of the convenience of getting close to the northern border, Shanxi merchants gradually developed into one of the best business groups in the country. The Shanxi merchants’ guild halls also spread all over the country with the expansion of their business territory. In the guild hall, Shanxi merchants usually worship Guan Gong, a god from Shanxi, in order to connect with the countryside and ensure a prosperous business, making Guan Gong accepted by people as the God of Wealth. In addition, in the traditional society where justice and profit are distinguished, Guan Gong’s image of trustworthiness is negligence and righteousness, emphasis on promises and trustworthiness, and repaying kindness is also helpful to alleviate the inner tension caused by businessmen chasing wealth.
The Qing Dynasty painting “Shangguan Xiacai”. The New Year paintings are Guan Gong on the top and the God of Wealth below, which means official and wealth.
Ming Shang Xi’s “Guan Yu Captures the Generals”.
Interestingly, the worship of Guan Gong is not limited to Babaylan 1990 cloth drawIn the Central Plains region and in the vast border ethnic areas, Guan Gong is also an important god widely worshipped by local people.
The “Guanmafa” in Manchu’s legend
Long before Manchu entered the pass, Guan Gong’s story had followed popular customs such as “Romance of the Three Kingdoms”Literature and art were introduced to the Northeast. The personal charm shown by Guan Gong in the novel can easily make Manchus who are good at riding and shooting and bravery become psychologically close. In order to strengthen the rule and win over the Han, Mongolian, North Korea and other groups, the upper rulers vigorously promoted Guan Gong, who was both brave and loyal. It is said that when Nurhaci was fighting with the Ming army, he received face-to-face advice from Guan Gong in his dream to help him get out of trouble. For this reason, he specially built the Guandi Temple in the west of Hetuara City. Huang Taiji included Guan Gong as the court sacrifice for the shamanism in the early morning sacrifice of the shamanism. This practice was continued in the palace life of the Qing Dynasty later. Guan Gong was an important god in Kunning Palace Sacrifice. The Qing rulers respected Guan Gong as the guardian saint of the Qing army. Before going to war, they would pay sacrifices to Guandi Temple to pray to Guandi to bless them to conquer the city and conquer the land and win a thousand miles. The praise of the rulers of the above Komiks 1960 witch cloth draw has led ordinary mankind to worship Guan Gong. Many ordinary people even named their children with the word “guan” to seek the protection of Guan Gong. The Guarja family, one of the eight major surnames of the Manchus, has many Chinese characters translated as Guan’s surname, which may also be related to Guan Gong’s worship.
Stills from Henan Opera “Yibo Yuntian”.
Cinema 1950 witch cloth draw Manchus also called Guan Gong “Cinema 1950 witch cloth drawGuanmafa”, and “Mafa” means “ye” and “ancestor” in Manchu. For a long time, many legends about Guanmafa have been circulated among the Manchu people, one of which is called “Guanmafa Uleben”, which tells the legendary life of “Guanmafa” in Mandarin: He was reincarnated by Caolong and saved by the Goddess Mother, and was later killed by pursuers. The Goddess Mother asked him to wash his face by the river, so he became a red-faced child. He was extremely powerful and skilled in archery. When he grew up, he competed with the god Chaohazhan of Changbai Mountain, fought with the evil god Yaleli, and saved the suffering Jurchens in the north. The whole story is conducted by the narrator in a combination of speaking and singing and reciting, and usually takes more than ten nights to complete.
After the Manchus won the Central Plains, they vigorously promoted Guan Gong’s loyalty, righteousness and courage, and regarded Guan Gong as the protector of the Qing Dynasty. Qing court’s addition to Guan GongAs many as many as 13 times, Guan Gong was upgraded from the “Han Shouting Marquis” during his lifetime to the “Loyalty and righteous God Wu Ling blesses and bravely shows his power to protect the country and protect the people, sincerely applauding Emperor Xuande Guan Sheng”, making Guan Gong truly a perfect god who has no blind spots and comprehensively protected the people of the country and the people. In addition, the Qing court also required local governments to build temples dedicated to Guan Gong and instill the concept of loyalty to the emperor and serving the country, which led to the Qing Dynasty the situation of “Guan Gong’s temples all over the world”. Some people have counted that in the middle of the Qing Dynasty, there were more than 300,000 Guandi temples across the country, even more than the number of Confucius Temples. To this day, Guandi Temple is still an important cultural landscape in many places.
Guan Gong and his ancestors worshipped by Manchu families.
“Gesar” in the Pantheon of Tibetan Buddhism
Among the cliff carving statue group in Haitang Mountain, Fuxin Mongolian Autonomous County, Liaoning, there is a statue of “Master Riding Horse”: Guan Gong is wearing military uniform and riding on a red rabbit horse. He held the reins in his left hand and the Qinglong Yanyue Sword in his right hand. There were five long beards on his chest, surrounded by auspicious clouds in front and back. What attracted scholars’ special attention was that a square Tibetan seal was engraved on the back of Guan Gong’s body, which was translated as “the seal of the Panchen Lama Erdeni”. On the dome outside the Buddha’s niche is engraved with a line of Tibetan text, translated as “Master Guan” in Chinese; there is a Mongolian couplet decorated with auspicious clouds and double-layer lotus petals at the upper and lower ends. It is translated as “Blessings are as abundant as the slender Siddar River, and life is as beautiful as the moon’s wishful beads.” What kind of historical secrets are hidden behind the appearance of such obvious Mongolian and Tibetan cultural factors in Guan Gong’s statue located in the Northeast?
Picture of Master Qimaguan.
In fact,The Mongols had come into contact with Guan Gong’s beliefs as early as the time of the alternation of Jin and Yuan dynasties. Given the importance of Chiyan in Jiezhou to national finance, they naturally continued the practices of the Song and Jin dynasties in respecting Guan Gong of the Salt God. After the Mongols entered China with their unprecedented martial arts and established the Yuan Dynasty, the brave war god Guan Gong came to them with their unique charm. According to historical records, the grand Buddhist ceremony “Visiting the Imperial City” held in the Yuan Dynasty palace, and the statue of Guan Gong was carried out as an important part. Guanwang Temple began to be widely established throughout the country. The people of Yuan Dadu City were influenced by the upper rulers and also held a grand Guanwang Competition on the Dragon Boat Festival. In the late Ming Dynasty, the Qing rulers who rose in the northeast compared their relationship with the Mongolian upper class to Liu Bei and Guan Yu. On the one hand, they won over the other with Guan Yu’s special status, and on the other hand, they used Guan Yu’s spirit of loyalty and righteousness to conquer Mongolia. In the Qing Dynasty, with the garrison officers and soldiers, merchants and reclamation people from the mainland, who were stationed in Mongolia, and the land reclamation people brought their families to the Mongolian area. Temples worshiping the God of War and the God of Wealth Guan Gong also appeared more and more on the Mongolian Plateau, and Guandi Temples were built in towns such as Guihua City, Chaktu, and Ulya Sutai. It can be seen from this that it is not surprising that Mongolian couplets appear in the statue of Master Qimaguan.
As for the appearance of Tibetan language in the statues, it is related to Tibetan Buddhism’s absorption of the war god Guan Gong and the Mongols’ conversion to Tibetan Buddhism.
Yonghe Palace has hidden the Qing Dynasty Guan Gong Thangka.
In the Yuan Dynasty, the image of the god of war Guan Gong had been introduced to Tibetan Buddhism. Since the late Ming Dynasty, with the strengthening of personnel exchanges and economic and cultural exchanges between the mainland and Tibetan areas, some Guandi temples have been established in various Tibetan areas where Tibetan Buddhist culture is dominated. Especially after the early Qing Dynasty sent troops to quell local turmoil in Tibet and Qinghai, the local officers and soldiers also brought in their devout faith in Guandi. For the god Guan Gong from the Han area, the living Buddha monks such as Zhangjia Living Buddha, Tuguan Living Buddha, and the Sixth Panchen Lama of Tibetan Buddhism did not turn them out, but instead strengthened the Tibetan area and the Chinese government.The connection between the Central Government, the consideration of maintaining the friendship and unity between Tibetan and Manchu and Han ethnic groups, and the origin and sacrificial rituals of Guan Gong were introduced in detail by writing a prayer for offerings, and Guan Gong was included in the ranks of the guardian gods of Tibetan Buddhism. In the prayer for offerings, Living Buddha Zhangjia also appeared and said, telling the story of Guan Gong helping him escape the disaster on his way to Beijing by hiring a dream and promising to protect Buddhism. Guan Gong’s image of red face and beautiful beard is quite similar to the guardian god Chi Zunzan and the war god Gesar in Tibetan Buddhism, making Guan Gong easily possessed by ordinary Tibetans as a corresponding god.
According to legend Komiks 1960 witch cloth draw In the 57th year of Qianlong’s Qianlong period (179Cinema 1950 witch cloth draw2), Fu Kang’an and Hailancha led the Qing army to counterattack against Gurkha’s invasion of Tibet, one time the Qing army fell into an ambush circle set by the enemy because they were unfamiliar with the terrain. The enemy relied on the danger of counterattacking. Although the Qing soldiers rushed bravely, they were still unable to break through the siege. Just when the morale was extremely low, suddenly, the enemy’s formation was filled with flames and shouts were shaking. Manchu and Han soldiers seemed to see countless Guan Gongs holding a big knife into the enemy camp. The Tibetan soldiers seemed to see countless King Gesar riding horses and killing the enemy. With the inspiration and assistance of the gods, the morale of the Qing army was greatly boosted, like a divine weapon descending from the sky, rushing towards the enemy formation, seizing the strategic high ground, and finally turning the situation around and achieving a great victory. After the triumphant victory, the soldiers were surprised to find that the god they vaguely saw in the battle was the Guandi worshipped in the Guandi Temple in Mopanshan that started construction before the expedition. From then on, Tibetans called this Guandi Temple “Gesalakon”, which is the Temple of Gesal. It can be seen that although the god of war Guan Gong and King Gesar are different in the eyes of believers, they are actually one.
Put down Gurkha victory.
Guan Gong was thus connected to the pantheon of Tibetan Buddhism, becoming a god worshipped by all ethnic groups who have lived in the snowy plateau for generations, and then spread throughout the entire area of influence of Tibetan Buddhist culture. It is not difficult to understand that the Mongolians engraved Tibetan content when building the statue of Guan Gong in Haitangshan because of Tibetan Buddhism.
The Cinema 1950 witch cloth draw Guandi statue in the Guandi Temple, the highest altitude of Everest.
The “Martial Saint Arrow God” in the minds of the Xibe people
The Xibe people are a nation that has lived in the northeast for generations. They have accepted Guan Gong’s belief in cultural exchanges with the Han and Mongolians. The Xibe family temple built during the Kangxi period is the Guandi Temple. After the established land moved westward to Xinjiang, the Xibe people also brought their devout belief in Guan Gong. Every Niulu where the Xibe people are located has a temple dedicated to Guan Gong. The Xibe people are a nation that is good at archery and often hold archery competitions. Before the game, the archers should worship the arrow god Guan Gong together, begging for the success of the game like Guan Gong. Guan Gong is also a martial saint who is extremely respected by the Xibe people guarding the border. There is still a legend about the Xibe tribe. In the battle of Hunbashi River, the key battle to pacify the Zhangge’s rebellion in the sixth year of Daoguang, 500 Xibe officers and soldiers fought fiercely with nearly 10,000 Zhangge’s rebels. Fortunately, Guan Gong descended from the sky to help, which turned the situation around, defeated the more with less, and finally established the victory of the entire war. After the war, the officers and soldiers of Xibe Battalion cast a large bell, and the bell cast a portrait of the relevant male, and the bell was engraved with the inscription “Loyalty, righteousness, God, Martiality, Benevolence, Brave, and Spiritual Blessing of the Gods and Emperors”. If we look back at the legend that appeared when the army counterattacked the Gurkha invasion, we will find that Guan Gong has become an important symbol for all ethnic groups including the Han, Manchu, Tibetan, Xibe to resist foreign invasions, safeguard the territorial integrity of the motherland, and maintain stability in the border areas.
In addition, there is a widespread belief in Guansuo in the southwest region, and people used to think that GuansuoIt is Guan Gong’s third son. Recent research has found that Guan Suoqi Babaylan 1990 cloth draw is actually a local variant of Guan Gong himself. Among the Miao, Bai, Qiang, Tu, Hezhe, Daur and other ethnic groups, there is also a unique worship of Guan Gong.
The Ming Dynasty clay sculptures painted Guan Gong statues.
The Qing Dynasty Zhao Yi once lamented the prosperity of Guan Gong’s belief: “North Star RidgeKomiks 1960 witch cloth draw, the cold wall of the North Pole, all children and women will shock their power. The prosperity of incense will be immortal with the heaven and the earth.” The unprecedented unified pattern of the Qing Dynasty created favorable conditions for personnel exchanges, economic exchanges, and cultural integration between the mainland and the border. With the joint promotion of official and civil forces, Guan Gong also introduced from the mainland to the border areas and entered the local temples and temples, becoming a god widely worshipped by all ethnic groups. In this process, legends about Guan Gong, rituals worshipping Guan Gong and even Guan Gong’s styling style may become more ethnic. However, people of all ethnic groups deeply agree with Guan Gong’s inner spirit of loyalty, righteousness and bravery, and regard Guan Gong as a cultural symbol of protecting the country and safe people and maintaining the border in Yongjing. This is the most worthy of our exploration and cherishing today.
Author profileBabaylan 1990 cloth draw:
Zheng Junhua, a young teacher at the School of Ethnology and Sociology of Central South University for Nationalities, graduated from Fudan University with a Ph.D. in history, and is mainly engaged in the study of the history of the Chinese nation.